- 5/13/2025
This episode shows the ways in which plants defend themselves against animals, and grow in search of sunlight, nutrients and water, all the elements needed to survive.
Category
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AnimalsTranscript
00:30High in the canopy of the South American rainforest, a fruit is falling.
00:53It has come from a plant sitting on a branch of one of the giant trees.
01:00Now it will rot and release a thousand seeds.
01:14If the seedlings are to survive, they will have to gain a position like their parents.
01:19Somehow they've got to get up into the canopy and the sunshine.
01:23The shoots that come from the seeds, like all shoots, can sense the light they can see.
01:43Each, as you might expect, sprouts upwards.
01:46But now these infant plants behave very strangely.
01:55They don't head for the brightest light, as most seedlings do.
01:59They seek the densest shade.
02:01And that usually lies around the trunk of the nearest tree.
02:04Each seedling is fuelled entirely by the store of food its parents deposited within the seed.
02:13That is enough to enable it to travel about six feet.
02:17If it doesn't find what it's looking for within that distance, it will die of starvation.
02:22These have made it to first base.
02:40They've reached a vertical surface, a tree trunk.
02:43As soon as one touches it, its behaviour changes dramatically.
02:55It starts growing upwards.
02:58And as it does, it puts out its first leaves.
03:01Now, for the first time, it can manufacture food for itself.
03:05With each additional leaf, the young plant increases in strength.
03:26It holds these small circular leaves flat against the bark.
03:31As it gains height, it produces bigger and bigger ones.
03:35And now, 50 feet above the forest floor,
03:50and many months since it first emerged as a slim green shoot from its seed,
03:57this extraordinarily active plant has changed the shape of its leaves once again.
04:02They've developed the slits and the holes that give it and its relations the name of cheese plants.
04:10The small, round green leaves that were pressed up against this trunk and the stem that bore them have now shriveled and died.
04:19The cheese plant has reached its true home, the forest canopy, and these are its adult leaves.
04:29Cheese plant leaves unfurl from pointed spikes like rolled umbrellas.
04:33But there are many ways of unpacking the green sheets that plants must open in order to catch the light of the sun.
04:45These are ferns.
04:46These are four countries.
04:55The conducive sorta
04:58These are two segments
04:59To show you
05:01The e-ást guns
05:02Get these
05:04These are the ones
05:05Together
05:05We can ever
05:06Usually
05:06Of their
05:07Third
05:08Or
05:10Their
05:11A tropical alocasia.
05:41The needle-shaped leaves of a larch.
05:58The broad, five-fingered hand of a chestnut.
06:06Leaves are the factories in which plants make their food.
06:20They're powered by the sunshine and they use the simplest of raw materials.
06:25Air, water and a few minerals.
06:29The process is the unique talent of plants.
06:32No animals can do such a thing.
06:34So all animals too depend, first or second hand, on the food produced here.
06:40This is the very basis of life.
06:44Air seeps into the leaves through pores on their surface.
06:48It circulates within them and reaches tiny granules that contain a green substance, chlorophyll.
06:56This is the key facilitator that uses the energy of the sun to bond carbon dioxide to hydrogen
07:03derived from water and produces carbohydrate, sugars and starches.
07:12These dissolved in sap are then carried from the leaf into the body of the plant, even during
07:17the night when the leaf factory has shut down.
07:23Come the dawn, the sun reappears and the process starts up again.
07:35In open country, in a hedgerow perhaps, there is so much light that as the sun climbs higher
07:52and higher, a plant has little difficulty in getting all it needs.
07:58In thick forest, it's not so easy.
08:01A plant growing beneath the canopy has to continually move its leaves to catch what it can from the
08:07shifting shafts of the sunlight.
08:11Above, the trees position their leaves with such accuracy that they form a close-fitting mosaic.
08:17The canopy is so efficient at gathering light that very little filters down here.
08:29There are leaves, of course.
08:30This is a young sapling of one of the canopy trees, but it is growing hardly at all.
08:36It's waiting for the chance that one of the adult trees will fall, releasing a flood of light.
08:43Then it can grow, and it will race upwards to try and claim the vacant space.
08:48It can wait 10, 20 years for that chance, but until it comes, there's simply not enough
08:53light for it to grow any further.
08:57For most, of course, that chance will never come.
09:00Most will die, the sapling.
09:03But there are some plants that spend their whole lives down here on the dim forest floor.
09:09This begonia, for example, it produces big leaves, flowers, and set seeds, all in this dim light.
09:18How?
09:20The secret is in the leaves.
09:23To start with, they have red undersides.
09:26That means that light falling on the surface of the leaf and going through it is not lost,
09:31but reflected back into the body of the leaf.
09:36So when sunlight does for a short time fall on the leaf, the plant is able to take maximum
09:41advantage of it.
09:47Another species of begonia has a different light-gathering trick.
09:51Small patches on the surface of their leaves are transparent and act as tiny lenses, gathering
09:56the feeble light and focusing it onto the grains of chlorophyll within.
10:01But plants need something else, as well as light, in order to make food for themselves.
10:08They need water and the nutrients that are dissolved in it.
10:11And that, of course, they suck up from the ground.
10:16The roots with which they do so probe downwards, seeking moisture.
10:26To get that, they have to position themselves with just as much accuracy as the leaves do
10:31when finding light.
10:35So the soil in a woodland is a tangle of precisely-placed rootlets,
10:38and the soil in a woodland is a tangle of precisely-placed rootlets,
10:42and from them, a fur of tiny hairs, so multiplying many thousands of times the surface area through
10:47which water can be sucked in.
10:52So the soil in a woodland is a tangle of precisely-placed rootlets from many different kinds of plants,
11:07each individual doing its best to ensure that it gets its fair share of moisture.
11:13If the rainfall is reasonably good for much of the year,
11:20and if the water in the ground is able to dissolve an adequate amount of nutrients from the soil,
11:25then some plants will become very big indeed.
11:29Growing 70 feet tall, like this sycamore, brings it great advantages.
11:52It allows it to overtop its neighbours so it can get all the sunshine it needs,
11:57and it enables it to spread out a huge surface area of leaves,
12:01and through their pores it can suck in carbon dioxide from the air.
12:05But it also brings considerable problems.
12:08As well as carbon dioxide, the leaves need water in order to make food.
12:14And water in the leaf can easily evaporate through the pores.
12:19Indeed, 90% of the water sucked in by the roots
12:24is lost through the surface of the leaves at the top of the tree.
12:29But pumping water up here to this height can cause considerable problems.
12:36to pump this jet of water 70 feet up in the air here,
12:48it takes that huge big noisy engine down there.
12:55but this tree pumps up about 100 gallons every hour
13:10and manages to do so in total silence.
13:14How?
13:18The answer is to be found in the tree's trunk.
13:26The central part of this is wood.
13:28Around the outside of this pillar there are ranks of hair-thin pipes.
13:33Those immediately beneath the bark carry the food-laden sap down from the leaves.
13:39Farther inside the trunk there's another set of tubes.
13:54These are the ones that carry the water up.
13:57They are continuous pipes that extend the whole length of the trunk.
14:04As the water evaporates in the leaves above,
14:18the long thin threads of it are pulled up the tubes,
14:22into the branches and ultimately into the leaves themselves.
14:27Some of it is used in the food-making process.
14:31The rest evaporates through the leaf pores as vapour.
14:45Of course, leaves can't absorb water directly.
14:49And indeed, water lying on their surface can cause some problems
14:53because it clogs up the pores.
14:55So some leaves have shapes which help to reduce that problem.
15:00Plants growing in the rainforests of the tropics have particular difficulties,
15:21for here the rain drenches down in torrents.
15:24They have to be tough to withstand the pounding.
15:34And they also have to have gutters to carry away the water.
15:40Many have pointed tips at the end, which ensure that the water doesn't linger on the leaf,
15:42but drains rapidly and completely away and doesn't interfere with the intake of air through the leaf pores.
15:44Many have pointed tips at the end, which ensure that the water doesn't linger on the leaf,
16:02but drains rapidly and completely away and doesn't interfere with the intake of air through the leaf pores.
16:09Others use dense hairs to keep their pores free.
16:14But rainfall is the least of the dangers that threaten leaves.
16:24and leaves.
16:25and leaves.
16:26and leaves.
16:27and leaves.
16:31and leaves.
16:55Leaves are breakfast, lunch and supper for these proboscis monkeys in Borneo.
17:03They eat pretty well, nothing else.
17:06Maybe a few flower petals every now and then, perhaps a little fruit, but otherwise entirely leaves.
17:13But leaves have a great drawback as food.
17:16They are not, in fact, very nutritious.
17:18So these monkeys have to spend hours and hours and hours every day stripping the trees of their leaves.
17:25The leaf sap, loaded with starch and sugars, is certainly nutritious.
17:47The problem comes from the walls of the cells that enclose that sap.
17:51They are made of cellulose, and the digestive juices of mammals can't deal with that.
17:57Bacteria, however, can.
17:59And those animals, like these monkeys, that eat a lot of leaves, have to sit around after feeding
18:04to give time for the bacterial colonies in their stomachs to deal with their difficult meals.
18:09Despite these drawbacks, lots of mammals and even some birds and reptiles have taken to this diet.
18:18But in fact, such big leaf eaters are in the minority.
18:21The plant's most numerous attackers, by far, are insects.
18:29All around me in this Borneo rainforest, there are millions of tiny mouths munching away invisibly.
18:35To give you some idea of the lengths to which an insect will go in order to get a vegetarian meal in safety, look at this.
18:44Clearly, it's a badly damaged leaf, but where is the creature that's doing the damage?
18:50This is it, a tiny caterpillar.
18:59It's soft, it's defenceless, it's clearly an excellent mouthful for many a bird.
19:05So, if it is to survive, it has to take steps to protect itself.
19:09It starts by making a semi-circular cut into the leaf from the margin.
19:23But when the cut is only half complete, it starts from the other end.
19:39It spins silk across the hinge, that, as it dries, contracts, and helps the caterpillar pull over the segment to form a roof.
19:49To make its tent a little more commodious, it cuts a pleat, pulls it across, and now it's got a little wigwam.
19:56The whole process only takes a few hours, and is usually done at night, when there are no birds around.
20:08Now, the caterpillar can feed in safety, shaving off the soft surface layers of the leaf, out of the sight of any hungry bird,
20:19and at significant cost to the plant.
20:22The damage and loss inflicted on plants by animals
20:51both large and small is huge and never-ending and plants of course do
20:57what they can to defend themselves some develop long ferocious needle sharp
21:02spines these you might think will be sufficient to deter anything but not so
21:09this tongue is so mobile that it can pick out the soft leaves from between the
21:15spines this hide is so tough that even the sharpest spines don't puncture it
21:20easily and these rubbery lips seem able to survive the most prickly of mouthfuls
21:36the attacker of course is a giraffe and it can reach leaves 15 feet above the
21:43ground it's the tallest of all living animals
21:59such intensive grazing means that it's very difficult for plants here to grow
22:03much bigger than stunted bushes
22:05thanks to their thorny defenses some acacias do succeed in growing to
22:11maturity and then they develop the umbrella shape which is so
22:15characteristic of the East African grasslands and now at last the acacia tree
22:19has some parts that even a giraffe can't reach the branches up at the top in the
22:25center there the acacia can save precious energy and reduce the scale of its thorny armaments
22:32on the outside the thorns are as long and as dense as anywhere but in the middle of the crown
22:40there are no thorns whatsoever the techniques employed by plants to defend themselves are very varied
22:48indeed some involve extremely refined armaments this is one of the commonest plants of the European
22:54countryside in summer many might think its tall stems are only too abundant in the hedgerows beneath its
23:02leaves it produces sprays of tiny flowers we can all recognize these as metals and have been able to do so
23:10since we were young for the very good reason that they have painful stings but this sting is actually
23:16quite a complex weapon watch
23:18ow
23:22it's a hollow hair constructed from silica the mineral from which we make glass and it's filled with poison
23:31its tip is so sharp that the slightest touch cuts human skin and so fragile that it breaks at that touch
23:38and releases poison into the wound the result is a painful swelling it's not just young humans who learn
23:46to avoid nettles so do young rabbits this one already knows that green leaves are good to eat it's yet to
23:53learn that some can defend themselves the nose has a little protective fur and that hurt
24:02it's better to stick to grass
24:07with such an effective armory nettles grow unmolested and rapidly establish themselves in great thickets but
24:21there are two kinds of nettles growing here the kind on the right is slightly different its leaves look just
24:30like those of a stinging nettle but it's white tubular flowers are quite different from those small brown ones of the true nettle
24:43in fact this is a relative of mint and thyme this is the dead nettle and it has no sting of any kind
24:51but even an adult rabbit doesn't apparently know the difference and it certainly doesn't risk a sting
24:56the dead nettle without going to the expense and trouble of producing poisoned hypodermic needles has found protection in mimicry
25:03and this is another mimic
25:09a tortoise in the desert of southern Africa is always on the lookout for a juicy mouthful but it walks right over as good a one as it might find all day
25:21and feeds instead on a few shriveled leaves
25:28the pebble plant mimics its surroundings so accurately that it even varies its colour to match that of the gravel around it
25:36few animals even notice it
25:39the passion flower uses mimicry to defend itself in perhaps the most extraordinary way of all
25:45it's much pestered by heliconius butterflies this is because its leaves are the favourite food of heliconius caterpillars
25:52so the female butterflies always lay their eggs on the plants in order that their youngsters when they hatch will find their favourite food immediately in front of them
26:00the egg is a little bright yellow globe
26:25there's another one
26:27there's another one
26:29there's another one
26:30there's another one
26:31there's another one
26:32there's another one
26:33there's another one
26:34there's another one
26:35there's another one
26:36there's another one
26:37there's another one
26:38there's another one
26:39there's another one
26:40there's another one
26:41there's another one
26:42there's another one
26:43there's another one
26:44there's another one
26:45there's another one
26:46there's another one
26:47there's another one
26:48there's another one
26:49there's another one
26:50there's another one
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26:56Because her young needs so much food,
27:05a female Heliconius won't lay on a passionflower
27:08if there are eggs already there.
27:10And before she starts, she makes a careful survey.
27:14This female has decided not to lay here.
27:18Hardly surprising, the leaves are already covered with eggs.
27:22Except that they are not eggs.
27:24These yellow spots are imitations.
27:27Fakes, produced by the plant as a deterrent.
27:31Another species of passionflower
27:33produces even more convincing bogus eggs
27:36on the stalks of the leaves.
27:38Surely one of the subtlest of strategies based on mimicry.
27:46Bracken has adopted a rather more straightforward defence.
27:50You might think that a nutritious-looking carpet of young leaves like this
27:59would show lots of signs of damage by grazers.
28:04I can see none.
28:05The fact is that bracken is full of a cocktail of toxins so powerful
28:12that any mammal that eats it, such as rabbit or cattle,
28:16is liable to go blind or to get cancer.
28:19When they're young, the leaves are packed with cyanide,
28:24which deters most things, including insects.
28:27But as the plant matures, it starts to synthesise even more complex poisons
28:35that deter almost every living creature.
28:37And as a result, the plant sprawls unchecked
28:41and covers vast areas of European hillsides.
28:44Ferocious spines, painful stings, poisonous sap,
28:51near-perfect disguise,
28:53plants seem to have evolved every conceivable defence for their leaves,
28:57which, by their very nature, have to be spread wide to catch the light
29:00and are therefore very visible.
29:03But this plant, the sensitive mimosa,
29:06common beside tropical roadsides,
29:08has perhaps the most radical
29:10and certainly the most dramatic solution of all.
29:14One touch makes it fold its leaflets.
29:29Another tap, and it flops to the ground.
29:34How does that help?
29:35Well, watch how a hungry, leaf-eating grasshopper gets on.
29:40Obviously, there's a splendid meal ahead.
29:44But before it even takes a bite,
29:51the meal vanishes.
29:55This...
29:56This...
30:08This ability to move fast
30:27is used by one astonishing plant
30:30to turn the tables on animals.
30:33It grows here in this swampy pine forest in Northern Carolina.
30:38Animals don't eat it, it eats animals.
30:42And there's one right here.
30:46Watch.
30:58This is Venus's flytrap.
31:01It shapes its traps from the ends of its leaves.
31:04One or two hairs on their surface act as triggers.
31:07Here comes a meal.
31:10Touch the hair and the trap is sprung.
31:17There's now no escape.
31:21The beetle's struggles stimulate the plant
31:26to close the trap even more tightly.
31:29It now produces digestive acids from glands
31:32on the inner surface of the leaf,
31:34which first kill and then dissolve its victim's body.
31:39Growing in the same Carolina swamp,
31:41there's another carnivorous plant.
31:44These are the trumpet pitchers.
31:47They, like the Venus's flytrap,
31:49find so little nutriment in this impoverished waterlogged soil
31:53that they supplement it with the bodies of animals.
31:56Their traps are also formed from leaves,
32:01but leaves that have been folded lengthways
32:03to make a vertical tube which fills with water.
32:06These spectacular trumpets may look like flowers,
32:20but of course they're not.
32:22Though, in a sense, this bright yellow top to them
32:25serves the same purpose as a petal.
32:28It's an advertisement of a delicious reward.
32:30And the reward itself is under here.
32:37Sweet nectar.
32:38But if an insect comes to collect it
32:41and strays into the mouth of the trumpet,
32:43then it's doomed.
33:01The inside of the throat of the trumpet
33:03is covered with microscopic downward-pointing spines.
33:07As long as it stays on the rim,
33:13the ant is all right.
33:15But if it strays off it,
33:17it falls into a pond of water and drowns.
33:22The tiny corpse dissolves
33:24and the marsh pitcher absorbs the resulting soup.
33:32And where one ant goes,
33:34others are likely to follow.
33:37The marsh pitcher attracts other animals too.
33:43This frog may be hoping to eat some of the insects
33:46before the pitcher does.
33:47But if it loses its footing,
33:49the plant will eat it.
33:51Marsh pitchers have comparatively simple traps.
33:53The pitcher plants proper produce more elaborate ones.
33:55And they live on the other side of the world.
33:57Marsh pitchers have comparatively simple traps.
33:59The pitcher plants proper produce more elaborate ones.
34:01And they live on the other side of the world.
34:11The headquarters of the pitcher plants are in Southeast Asia.
34:13There are 76 different species of them,
34:1530 of which grow only on the island of Borneo.
34:23And they include the biggest of them all.
34:24A truly spectacular plant, appropriately called Nepenthes raja.
34:29That grows only on this great mountain, Kinabalu.
34:33And they're all around me.
34:35I guess this one contains two or three pints of liquid.
34:41It's so big that it catches not just insects, but even small rodents.
34:46And one was recorded that had in it the body of a drowned snake.
35:14The body of a drowned rat.
35:17So if ever there was a carnivore among plants, this is it.
35:25The traps of this Asian family of pitcher plants are once again modified leaves.
35:30But they're not simply folded into a tube.
35:33The process is more complex.
35:36A shoot appears that looks just the same as those that turn into normal leaves.
35:44Over a period of several days, flanges develop near the end and open out to form the blade of a leaf.
35:59But then the tip of the midrib continues to grow.
36:03Once it touches the ground, it begins to inflate.
36:18The lid opens to inflate.
36:19The lid opens to expose the plant.
36:21The lid opens to inflate.
36:23The lid opens to expose the plant's lethal pond.
36:48Some of the bigger species may produce half a dozen or so of these huge, elegant traps.
37:13honey!
37:15Honey!
37:16Honey!
37:17Honey!
37:32Honey!
37:35Honey!
37:36Honey!
37:37Honey!
37:38했어요!
37:39The shape and placing of the pictures
38:07varies from species to species but in their essentials they're all the same.
38:11They attract their prey with nectar, they have slippery sides so that many of
38:17their visitors tumble into them, and the fluid within contains juices which actively
38:22dissolve the bodies.
38:25So leaves, one way or another, either by catching insects or much more usually by
38:39absorbing gases and harnessing the energy of sunlight, manufacture food for a plant.
38:45But leaves are actually comparatively delicate structures.
38:49This plant, the giant arum of Borneo, develops the biggest undivided leaf of all.
38:58It can have a surface area of up to three square metres, 34 square feet.
39:04The arum keeps these vast leaves outstretched by pumping the cells within them full of water.
39:11If there's not enough water to do that, or if it gets so cold that the water freezes and
39:15bursts the cell walls, then the leaf will collapse.
39:17Of course, neither of those things is likely to happen here in the tropical rainforest,
39:22which is one reason why such immense leaves can develop here.
39:25But elsewhere in the world, plants don't have it so easy.
39:39In northern lands, where the winters can be very severe, many trees have to take drastic
39:44measures to protect themselves.
39:50As the days grow shorter and colder and autumn approaches, the trees prepare to cut their losses
39:57and suspend their activities.
40:03They start to shut down their food factories and withdraw the valuable chlorophyll from the
40:08leaves.
40:10As the green pigment drains away, waste products that have accumulated over the year are revealed,
40:15and the leaves begin to change colour.
40:20In New England and the Appalachian Mountains, day after day, whole hillsides of maples and
40:27aspens begin to flush red.
40:29In New England and the Appalachian Mountains, day after day, whole hillsides of maples, day after day, whole hillsides of maples, day after day, whole hillsides of maples, day after day, whole hillsides of maples.
40:36Next is Krakow or Friedrichs, day after day, full 100%ingers, day after day, whole hillsides of maples, day after day, whole hillsides of maples.
40:49Morning dozen Army years ago.
40:55Morning to the Academy of shopping industry as well.
41:02As the leaves dry out, they're sealed off.
41:32A hard corky partition develops within the base of the leaf stalks.
41:38Now the slightest breath of air will detach them.
42:02The loss is great, but it's not total.
42:14The leaves falling to the ground will soon decay.
42:17That will release much of the nutrients that were used in constructing them,
42:21and in the spring, the trees, through their rootlets just below the surface of the earth,
42:26will be able to reclaim much of what they have lost.
42:30So, by the time winter grips the land, the trees are reduced to skeletons.
42:39Growth has virtually stopped.
42:41The processes of life are barely ticking over.
42:56This alternation of growing in summer and shutting down in winter leaves its mark in the tree's trunk, annual rings.
43:04The white wood are large, open cells that were laid down in the summer,
43:09and the dark wood, small, dense cells laid down more slowly in autumn and winter.
43:16So, by counting the rings, I can be absolutely certain
43:19that this beech tree lived for over 200 years before it fell.
43:24And that's longer than any animal lives.
43:32The record for longevity, however, is much greater than that and is held elsewhere.
43:39Here, 10,000 feet up in the white mountains of eastern California,
43:59grow the oldest living things on earth, the bristlecone pines.
44:05This part is already dead.
44:10But here, there is life and growth.
44:15Those rings in the trunk tell us exactly how old these trees are.
44:20Because the conditions up here are so extreme when it gets so very cold in winter,
44:25some years there's very little growth at all.
44:28And as a consequence, the rings are very much more close together.
44:33This is a conception of one of these trees.
44:37The outermost ring is the year in which it died, 1958.
44:42Count a hundred rings inwards, 1858.
44:46Another century, 1758.
44:49Around here is the ring it was developing when Columbus arrived on this continent in 1492.
44:56It was in the full vigour of its youth when the pharaohs were ruling Egypt.
45:01So we can be quite sure that when the first human farmers were just beginning to plant seeds for themselves,
45:10this ancient ravaged tree was just sprouting.
45:14It's over 4,000 years old.
45:17Pine leaves are obviously very different from the leaves of oak and maple.
45:25Instead of being broad and flat and easily damaged by frost, they are needle-shaped and very tough.
45:32Instead of having pores all over the flat surface, as oak and maple do, these pores are restricted to a groove which runs down the length of the needle.
45:41It's partly filled by a tough, waxy deposit.
45:47And beneath that, there are lines of small pores.
45:52Very few compared with those that are scattered all over an oak leaf.
45:56Even at the height of summer, leaves like these can't manufacture food as swiftly as broad leaves do.
46:09But on the other hand, the needle-producing trees, the conifers, don't discard them every year,
46:15but keep them for very much longer, with all the saving of energy that implies.
46:20The conifers' policy is slow but sure.
46:24And it's produced not only the oldest plants, but other record holders.
46:33And this is the most massive living thing on Earth.
46:38The giant sequoia.
46:40They don't live as long as bristlecone pines.
47:05They grow up to 300 feet tall, and every year they put on as much wood as there is in a 60-foot tree of normal proportions.
47:20So that the really big ones weigh over 1,000 tons.
47:25June 151, 2019
47:28June 153, 2019
47:31June 151, 2019
47:32Although they may be loaded with snow for months in the winter and baked dry in the summer,
47:58the conifers have produced the largest and the longest living of all organisms on Earth.
48:05And like all plants, they've done it with the simplest of ingredients,
48:09with water and minerals from the Earth, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and light.
48:28And like all plants, they've done it with water and minerals from the water and minerals from the water and minerals from the water and minerals from the water.
48:44And like all plants, they've done it with water and minerals from the water.
49:00So that's the most important part of the Earth.
49:05For more information, visit www.fema.org
49:15www.fema.org
49:19www.fema.org
49:21www.fema.org
49:25www.fema.org
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